Development and Humanitarian Agencies Behind the Lines:Establishing Security in the Operational Space H n Zhili l t has been widely recognized that development and humanitarian I agencies play a key role in post-conflict peace building.The an— archical and chaotic conditions of failing states are considered the sources of conflict.International military response is not enough to uproot the sources or to prevent conflict from reviving.In the long term,coordinated development and humanitarian program are re— quired to help failing states reform their political institutions,improve security and judicial systems,promote social and economic develop— ment,and eradicate underlying socio—economic,cultural and humani— tarian problems leading to the conflict. It is not equally recognized, however,that development and humanitarian agencies also contribute in the campaign by international military forces to establish a worka— ble level of security in the operational space.In this essay.I examine three important roles that development and humanitarian agencies play in this regard,namely:mine action,Disarmament,Demobilization, Rehabilitation and Reintegration(DDRR),and intelligence. Section one examines humanitarian mine action program and ar— gues that development and humanitarian agencies effectively share the burden with international military forces to clear landmines and unex— ploded ordnances(UXO)and help establish a more secure environ— ment for both civilians and peacekeepe ̄.Section two examines ef- forts made by development and humanitarian agencies in DDRR and argues that those agencies have made great contributions to help reha— bilitate and reintegrate former combatants and prevent continuing cy- cles of violence.However,without a secure environment,alternative 39 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com
opportunities of 1ivelihood for the former combatants and better coordi. nation between military forces and development and humanitarian a. gencies.some of these efforts are 1ess than successfu1.Section three argues that grass root representative offices of development and hu— manitarian agencies constitute a source of information useful to the es— tablishment of security and are potentially important in the role of in. telligence.However,due to unwillingness of UN member states and the poor information sharing and analysis,this potential is far from being realized. Mine Actions Landmines and UX0 are a major threat to security in operational space.Afghanistan,Iraq,Cambodia,and many other conflict and post—conflict countires in which peace operations are being conducted are heavily contaminated with 1andmines and UX0.UN statistics shows that in Afghanistan.1andmines and UX0 affect 6.4 million people and 2,400 communities.Casualties are severe.There were 756 people injured or killed by landmines in 2003.579 in the first half of 2004.So far.based on estimates.the total number of 1and— mine and UX0 victims in Afghanistan exceeds 100.000. In Cambo— dia.mine action groups identified 3,600 mined areas and 2,900 square kilometers of affected land.It iS estimated that there have been more than 60.000 people injured or killed by 1andmines and UX0. In Iraq.1andmine—contaminated areas cover approximately 727 square kilometers,affecting 7.5 million people;UXO—contami— nated areas cover 904 square kilometers,affecting 1 2.3 million peo. pie. Landmines and UXO have also caused severe casuahies among international military forces.In Afghanistan.in 2002。U.S.military casualties include five soldiers killed and ten injured in 1andmine and UX0 incidents.Casualties of other countires’peacekeeping forces in— clude six soldiers killed and fourteen injured.There are also several reports of Afghan soldiers fighting with coalition forces killed and in iured by landmines. In Iraq,between mid—March and the end of 4n 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com
May 2003.at least five U.S.soldiers were killed and 21 iniured in landmine and UXO incidents:two British soldiers were killed in land. mine and UXO incidents during the same period. Although,due to difficulties of data collection,available data iS far from accurate and complete.we can still see the severe impact of landmines and UXO on security in the operational space. Mine clearance traditionally iS considered a military activity. However,due to limited resources in the operational space,military forces can only clear landmines and UXO that block strategic path. ways in war zones..Such limited efforts by the military are far from enough to establish a workable level of security in the operational space. As a result.during the last decade,mine action has deve1. oped from a stirctly military activity to a more sophisticated and sys .tematic humanitarian and developmental activity.Humanitarian Mine Action(HMA)has been undertaken by the UNDP,NGOs and other humanitarian and development agencies to tackle the mine problem. This program is implemented in Afghanistan,Cambodia,and north— ern Iraq(Iraqi Kurdistan).It undertakes such tasks as landmine and UXO clearance in civilian communities.survey and assessment of mine impact,mine risk education.and survivor assistance. HMA iS aD effective humanitarian mine action program.In Af- ghanistan,by the end of last July,7O%of the data collection identif- ying contaminated communities had been completed.In Contrak in. ternational,7,468 landmines and 91,141 UX0 fragments had been cleared.The mine—affected communities that were cleared covered 39,930 sq meters;the battle areas that were cleared covered 848,990 sq meters.Mine clearance on the Kabul—Kandahar road reconstruction site has been completed and the road reconsturcted in a timely man. ner.7 1 m of the Kabu1.Gardez road has been cleared of landmines. Mine clearance iS being conducted across the country in the areas of Ghazni.Shanon, Jalalabad—Asmar, Grishk—Delaram, Kandahar Grishk.and Kabul International Airport.Aside from all this,the pro. gram is also helping the Iraqi government develop a national transition plan and finalize the draft legislation for establishment of a Nationa1 Mine Action Agency. 41 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com
Regarding all other humanitarian mine action programs,of parti— cular note iS the international community’S child—focused response to landmine and UXO problems.The“Child to Child”program.imple- mented in Kosovo,Federal Republic of Yugoslavia by the United Na— tions Mine Action Coordination Center,is one such example.This program educates through games,dramas and songs and distributes worldwide mine awareness materials such as comic books。posters,t— shirts,badges,and television and radio campaigns with messages tar— geted specifically at children.The program also presents mine aware— ness lessons at schools and community events.These and all the other activities successfully arouse children’S awareness to the danger of Jandmines and UXO.⑩ Disarmament,Demobilization,Rehabilitation and Reintegration(DDRR) DDRR aims to“reduce the availability of small aF1TIS through weapons collection schemes;disband armed groups;and reintegrate armed combatants into society.” Successful demobilization and reintegra tion iS considered a key determinant of security and social stability.It iS believed that if implemented successfully.DDRR can help societies move from a state of war to that of peace,help build enduring and peaceful relations,and prevent continuing cycles of violence.Other— wise,as we have seen,“relatively stable situations can quickly un— rave1.’,⑩ The implementation of a DDRR program requires high--level CO-- ordination between military forces and development and humanitarian agencies. International military forces are often responsible for the disarmament and demobilization phases;development and humanitari. an agencies assist in the long—term goal of reintegrating former con— batants into civilian life. Great efforts have been made by development and humanitarian agencies in DDRR.In Liberia,for example,there were an estimated 7 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com
53.000 ex.combatants.Without an effective DDRR.they were likely to be recruited by faction armies and weaken national security. Un— der these circumstano.s,UNDP implemented a comprehensive DDRR program with partners including the UN Office of Humanitarian Af- fairs,UNICEF,UNHCR,WFP and WHO,the U。S.Agency for In— ternational Development,the European Union,and the World Bank. The program worked to disband irregular forces,restructure Liberian security forces,provide technical support to coordinate disarmament and demobilization of former combatants,rehabilitate and reintegrate former combatants,and establish measures to support the needs of war.affected communities and returning populations. The UNDP’S DDRR programis a great complement to the efforts of UNMIL to dis— band irregular forces and restuctrure Liberian security forces.inclu. ding the Liberian National Army.national police and other security services.Under the auspices of those humanitarian and development agencies,the National Commission for DDRR was established to coor— dinate cantonment and disarmament.The UNDP also manages the DDRR Trust Fund.which works to raise funds to meet the¥75 mil— lion budget required by the DDRR program.So far,the Fund has raised¥500.000 from Sweden and 4.1 million euro from the Europe— aD Union。¥3 million from the United States and¥1.8 million from I JK. 0f note here are the programs launched by development and hu. manitarian agencies speciifcally for the demobilization and reintegra— tion of child combatants.These programs are conducted within the ramework of tfhe broader program and focus on the reintegration of children into their communities of origin.Program to demobilize child soldiers in the midst of conflict have been undertaken in Colombia. the Democratic Republic of the Congo,Sierra Leone,Sri Lanka,and the Sudan.Children separated from their families are at high risk for recruitment or re—recruitment into armed forces and factional groups. UNHCR,UNICEF.ICRC and a number of NGOs have launched el- forts in conflict zones to prevent separations,quickly identify separa— ted children.and reunite them with their families in a timely man ner.⑩ 43 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com
The efforts of DD RR programs,however.are sometimes less than successfu1.There are numerous reports of recruitment of former combatants.In Congo,for example,even after former child combat— ants were reunited with their families and efforts made to rehabilita— tion them,they were still at great risk of re—recruitment.It iS reported that many rehabilitated children were recruited or abducted and taken to neighboring countires for training and then brought back to fight a— gain in Congo.⑩ There are three main reasons why rehabilitated former combat— ants rearm.First iS 1ack of public security.If former combatants do not feel safe in their communities they may take up arms again.Un— der such unsafe conditions,civilian populations are often unwilling to see 1ocal militia disarmed.They even may form 1ocal defense groups or recruit former combatants as private security guards. The second reason iS feW alternative means of 1ivelihood for the former combat. ants.A revived economic infrasturcture with opportunities for former combatants iS crucia1 to the immediate success of a demobilization and reintegration program.Without an alternative means of livelihood, former combatants are more 1ikely to be re—enlisted as soldiers.De. mobilized Liberian child soldiers found their skills 1ess usefu1 in a shattered economy and were quickly re—absorbed into fighting forces or employed in the i1licit exploitation and trafficking of minerals and re— sources. To have a successful DDRR.a 1ong—term perspective and adequate resources to prevent re—recruitment are essential,as is an understanding of the 1oca1 perceptions of former combatants.The third reason rehabilitated former combatants rearm iS that military forces and development and humanitarian agencies fai1 to communicate and coordinate SO that time frames are sometimes incompatible.Thi s often causes a low success rate in DDRR programs. Intelligence Development and humanitarian agencies potentially play an important role in the area of intelligence. With field representatives active at the 44 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com
grass roots level,these agencies are familiar with local economic and social conditions.and constitute potential sources of valuable informa— tion.The Secretary—General and the Secretariat have used these sources to gather intelligence as an early warning of humanitarian cri- sis.Thev seek early warning information from UN field posts,UNH— CR.UN functional offices,∞and human rights NGOs such as the Carnegie Commission.the Council on Foreign Relations in New York.and International Alert in London. Some international agen- cies such as the UNHCR cooperate with these NGOs and have attemp- ted to develop a network model of intelligence sharing that depends on voluntary cooperation of a number of individuals and organizations. The goal of gathering intelligence in order to establish security in the operational space iS far from being realized.however.In the sys- tem employed by the UN.contemporary conception of intelligence iS stilllimited in the area of humanitarian affairs. New security intelli- gence is not related to“deterring,deflecting,or countering hostile actions directed at military troops.”but rather to assist in“preventive diplomacy.” According to Sutterlin’S study.there are two main rea— sons that prevent development and humanitarian agencies from fulifl— ling their role in the collection of security intelligence.One iS that “the representatives are understandably fearful that reporting could j eopardize relations with local authorities and the host governments.” It iS highly unlikely that the UN will ever have an intelligence service because“the member states are adamantly opposed to being spied on by their own organization.” The other iS that“there iS no system through which functional agencies can bring to the attention of a cen— tral office in the UN signiifcant information that can be culled from the regular reports submitted by representatives in the field.” A great deal of information iS available from these resources.which came later to the UN but were still not used to full advantage. Conclusion In general,we can conclude that development and humanitarian agen一 45 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com
cies have important roles to play in the campaign by international rail— itary forces to establish a workable level of security in the operati0nal space.Firstly,mine action has evolved over the past decade from a stirctly military activity to a sophisticated and systematic humanitarian and developmental activity.There are a series of humanitarian mine action programs such as Humanitarian Mine Action,Emergence Mine Clearance Action.and“Child to Child’’which contribute greatly to eradicate the threat of landmines and UXO in the operational space. Secondly,humanitarian and developmental efforts are also important in Disarmament,Demobilization,Rehabilitation and Reintegration. Development and humanitarian agencies provide technical support in the COOrdination of disarmament and demobilization of ofrmer combat— ants.They support the government to reintegrate former combatants into communities,rehabilitate and reintegrate former combatants.and establish measures to support the needs of war—affected communities and returning populations. The efforts by UNDP.UNHCR and many other humanitarian and development agencies are critically important to prevent conflict from reviving and to establish long--term security and stability in the opera-- tional space.However.due lack of security in the greater environ— ment.shortage of economic infrastructure with opportunities for for— mer combatants and poor coordination between international military forces and humanitarian and development agencies,DDRR programs sometimes failed to reach their initiative goals.Thirdly.the grass root representative offices of humanitarian and development agencies con— stitute a valuable source of information and potentially play an impor— tant role in the gathering of intelligence.This potential role of intelli— gence for the establishment of security in the operational space iS far rfom being realized,however,mainly because UN member states are reluctant to allow their own organization spy on themselves,and be— cause they lack a sophisticated information sharing and analysis sys. tem. Besides these contirbutions,development and humanitarian a— gencies play other important roles in the establishment of a workable level of security in the operational space.They work to improve secu一 46 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com
② ③ ④ ⑤⑥⑦⑧⑨⑩ ⑧ ⑥⑩⑩⑥⑩⑥⑩ rity of public health,preventing the spreading of epidemic diseases, as well as to improve the security of drinking water and food,necessi— ⑩⑩③②② ties critical to the safety of both civilians and military forces.△ Notes: ①Boutros Boutros—Ghali(1994),An Agenda for Development(A/48/935),paragraph 139一l51. UN EMINE(Electronic Mine Information Network),country profile:Afghanistan,ht— tp://www.mineaction.ors/countries/countries—overview.cfm?country—id:910. UN EMINE,country profile:Cambodia http://www.mineaction.org/countries/coun— tries—overview.cfm?country—id=930. UN EMINE,countyr profile:Iraq,http://www.mineaction.orS/countries/countires—O— verview.cfm?countyr—id=920. Landnfine Monitor,Afghanistan,http://www.icb1.or/slm/2001/afghanistan. Landmine Monitor,Iraq,http://www.icb1.ors/lm/2003/iraq. http://www.mineaction.or/scountires/countries—overview.cfm?countyr—id=930. Humanitarian Mine Action,http://www.icb1.org/hn/2002/intro/hma.html#top. HMA. HMA,javascript:Launchlmage(‘../Images/Ethiopia/LandmineAwareness—Large. jpg’,‘898’,‘588’). Lilly,Damian,Peacebuilding Dimension of Civil—military Relations in Complex Emer— gencies。P.13, Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. UNDP ofifcial website for Liberia programme(2005),http://www.1r.undp.org. UNDP ofifcial website for Liberia programme(2005),http://www.1r.undp.org. Ibid. Website of Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary—General for Children and Armed Conflict(2005),http://www.un.or/sspecial—rep/children-armed—con— flict/English/Printable/ChildSoldiers.htm1. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Sutterlin,James(1998),Early Warning and Conflict Prevention:the Role of the Unit— ed Nations,in Early Warning and Conflict Prevention:Limitation and Possibilities,P. 122. Ibid. Adelman,Howard(1 998),Humanitarian and Conflict—Oriented Early Warning,in Early Warning and Conflict Prevention:Limitation and Possibilities,P.47. 47 维普资讯 http://www.cqvip.com
③ Ibid,P.45. ⑤ Ibid,P.46. ③ Sutterlin,James(1 998),Early Warning and Conflict Prevention:the Role of the Unit— ed Nations,in Early Warning and Conflict Prevention:Limitation and Possibilities,P. 124. ◎Ibid. ⑩Ibid. Bibliography: ① Adelman,Howard(1 998),“Humanitarian and Conflict—Oriented Early Warning,”in Klass Van Valraven(1998),ed.Early Warning and Conflict Prevention:Limitations and Possibilities(Hague:Kluwer Law Internationa1). ② Sutterlin,James S.(1998),“Early Warning and Conflict Prevention:The Role of the United Nations”in Klass Van Vabaven(1 998),ed。Early Warning and Conflict Pre— vention:Limitations and Possibilities(Hague:Kluwer Law Internationa1). ③ Lilly.Damian.“Peace building Dimension of Civil—military Relations in Complex E— mergencies,”A Briefing Paper,available at http://www.international—alert.org/pdf/ pubdev/brie“ng3.pdf。 ④ Boutros Boutros—Ghali(1994),“An Agenda for Development”(A/48/935),availa— ble at http://www.un.org/Docs/SG/agdev.htm1. ⑤ UN Electronic Mine Information Network,Countyr Profile:Afghanistan,available at ht— tp://www.mineaction。ore,/countries/countries—overview。cfm?countryid=910.UN ~EMINE:Countyr Profile:Cambodia.available athttp://WWW.mineaction.org/coun— tries/countries—overview.efro?country—id=930.UN EMINE:Count ̄Profile:Iraq.a— variable at:http://www.mineaction.org/countries/countriesoverview.cfm?country— —id=920. ⑥ “Humanitarian Mine Action,”available at:http://www.icb1.ore,/lm/2002/intro/ hma.html样top.http://www.icb1.org/lm/2002/intro/hma.html样top.http://www. mineaction.ore./countries/count1.ies overview.cfm?country id=930. ⑦ “UNDP Official Website for Liberian Programmes ”available at http://www.1r.undp. org・ ⑧ Website of Ofifce of the Special Representative of the Secretary.General for Children and Armed Conflict,http://www.un.ore,/special—rep/children—armed—conflict/English/ Printable/ChildSoldiers.htm1. 48
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